Japan started rebuilding its economy after World War II by selecting core industries and focusing their resources on them.
After surrendering in WWII, Japan lost its colonies and much of its key industries. Obtaining foreign currency through exports and importing raw materials and food were the only ways to survive as a resource-poor island nation.
Under the post-war agreement, Japan became dependent on the U.S. for its national defense and launched national reconstruction projects with the support of the U.S. and other countries. Given its limited resources, Japan planned to become globally competitive by selecting key industries and focusing all investment on them.
What Japan had in abundance at the time was cheap labor by well-educated people. While focusing on light industries such as textiles and cheap electronics would have been a more reasonable decision, the Japanese government believed that this would not allow Japan, with a population of nearly 100 million, to escape the poverty and famine that had spread throughout Asia.
The Japanese government decided to focus on the fields of oil refining, chemicals, steel, automobiles, aircraft, industrial machinery, computers, and other electronics industries requiring massive capital and technology, which were not in line with [1] Japan’s situation at the time.
The Japanese government judged that investing in these industries (with rapidly advancing technology, labor productivity, and demand) may seem irrational, but will prove much more beneficial to Japan in the long run [2].
This government-led approach to economic growth, based on the unique ties between the Japanese government and businesses, was so successful as to be called “the miracle years.”
The Japanese government did not leave its economy up to the market, but took on the “administrative guidance of business” by administering their goals and priorities from the beginning. The fundamental difference between the Japanese government’s approach and a dictatorship’s complete control of the industrial sector is that Japanese companies and various ministries have maintained close ties since the Meiji Restoration.
Japan’s economy grew remarkably as the Japanese government provided tax incentives and other forms of support while Japanese companies successfully developed industries under government direction.
To this end, the Japanese government not only put the central bank under the complete control of government agencies, but also provided selective loans to key industries through state-run banks. Additionally, it set a five-year plan for Japan’s industrial development through the National Planning Agency, managed indicators to prioritize industrial revival, and commanded imports, overseas investments, foreign exchange, and technology transfers.
In addition to closely monitoring the productivity of capital and labor in each industry, the NPA analyzed the latest trends of foreign companies to determine how Japan should allocate its resources and continue to grow. Japan has since then grown into the world’s second-largest economy after the U.S.
As Japan entered a long period of economic stagnation, its government actively sought to restore its industrial competitiveness.
In the 1970s and 1980s, Japanese companies such as NEC, Hitachi, and Toshiba obtained more than 70% of the global market share. However, their market share has been plummeting since Korean company Samsung Electronics’ memory business became No. 1 in 1993.
In the late 1990s, the Japanese government integrated NEC and Hitachi’s DRAM business to create Elpida Memory with the goal of beating Korean companies and leading the global semiconductor market once again.
Elpida continued to grow by merging Mitsubishi’s DRAM business, and the Japanese government even used public funds to support its growth. Yet Elpida was not competitive enough to regain the global market; it eventually went bankrupt in 2012 and was acquired by Micron, a U.S. producer of computer memory and computer data storage.
To revive the LCD industry in crisis due to the growth of Korean companies, the Japanese government established JDI by integrating LCD divisions of Sony, Hitachi, and Toshiba. However, JDI—which, like Elpida, struggled to prove competitive in the global market—was found to have committed accounting fraud to increase profits from 2014 to 2019.
After being in the red for five consecutive years, JDI made a dramatic comeback by securing additional investments worth 1 trillion won in early 2020. JDI, which belatedly decided to withdraw from the LCD business, says it will further invest in OLED to compete in the small and medium-sized OLED market dominated by Korean companies such as Samsung and LG.
The Japanese government launched a space jet project with the aim of publicizing its economic revival through the localization of passenger aircrafts.
In the mid-2000s, Japan’s Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry launched a “SpaceJet” project to integrate Japanese technological capabilities and localize small passenger jets with under 100 seats. The government-organized project began with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries leading the project in cooperation with other companies; over 11 trillion won was spent jointly by public and private sectors.
In actuality, the aircraft industry is a sore point [3] for Japan. During WWII, Japan’s aviation technology was so advanced that its fighter jets overpowered those of its enemies. However, strict limitations were imposed on the aviation industry during the post-war U.S. military rule, and the foundation of the industry consequently collapsed.
Nevertheless, Japan successfully developed its first propeller plane after the war through the Nihon Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation, which was jointly established by the government and the private sector, and used the plane to carry the torch for the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. This, along with the Shinkansen bullet train, became a symbol of post-war reconstruction and economic boom. The Japanese government intended to announce its revival using Japanese-made aircraft once again for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.
That said, the deadline for payment in 2013 has been postponed until 2022, while the cost of the project has increased more than seven times to 11 trillion won. The losses of companies participating in the project are snowballing. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, which recorded a deficit of nearly 3 trillion won in 2019 alone, expects a loss of 1 trillion won in 2020 even despite its plans to reduce its workforce and business by over 90%.
Mitsubishi Aircraft Corporation, expected to play an important role, has decided to halve its development staff and organization, and the resignation of its president has raised more questions about the sustainability of the project. There are also serious concerns about sales during the COVID-19 crisis.
After the consecutive failures of government-led projects, there is growing concern that this approach to economic growth may not work as it had in the past.
This approach of forming a government-led business alliance against foreign countries has been used in various fields including semiconductors, displays, aviation, heavy industries, and connected cars.
A series of failed businesses are raising doubts about the current validity of the success equation in which the Japanese government decides the direction of the project, integrates companies to create economies of scale, and achieves growth through intensive investment.
Other East Asian countries have also achieved rapid economic growth through similar approaches. Given this historical context, governments and their people have no choice but to continue to yearn for such government-led industrial promotion.
Contrary to the past when the ultimate goal was to catch up with developed countries, the direction is less clear these days. A rigid and slow government-led operation may no longer be appropriate.
Moreover, companies today are able to raise the necessary funds on their own, and their human resources are superior to the government’s. There are criticisms that the government’s attempts to lead industries reduce the autonomy, creativity, and will of the private sector.
Some believe that this Hinomaru method, executed without the private sector’s vision, is unlikely to succeed because the government’s consolidation of less competitive companies cannot create global competitiveness out of thin air [4].
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