Over the past century, English has evolved into a de-facto [1] international common language for business, politics, and academia. With this development, bilingualism has become a critical subject for governments, parents, and people in general. Countries across the world consider early English language education as an important pillar of their education systems. Indeed, English is commonly being taught as early as grade 1 of elementary school or even in preschools and kindergartens. However, the influence of English as a global common language is not the only factor that fuels the debate around bilingualism. Greater international mobility has led to increased streams of migration across countries, and many children are born into societies where one or both of their parents’ native languages are not widely spoken outside of their home or local communities.
Within this new paradigm, the importance of early English language education is widely acknowledged, and speaking both English and one’s mother tongue is regarded to be prestigious [2]. At the same time, concerns about bilingualism, particularly in the context of immigration and children of immigrants, persist, often fueled by nationalist and xenophobic sentiments within societies.
The reason why a distinction between simultaneous and sequential bilingualism is necessary in the first place is that the humans learn their L1 very differently from an L2. Have you ever wondered how you’ve learned your mother tongue perfectly as a baby without textbooks and grammar tables? That’s because the brains of infants and young children seem to have the capacity to acquire the language of their environment purely incidentally, that is, without deliberately learning it but by simply hearing (input) and using (output) it. This ability is thought to deteriorate with age which is why it is necessary to memorize vocabulary and grammar rules when you learn a language later. Hence, the processes of acquiring one’s L1 and L2 are rather different.
However, there is no clear cut-off point where humans suddenly completely lose their ability to acquire languages incidentally. It just becomes less efficient and more difficult with time. At the same time, the consensus in linguistics today is that in L2 acquisition, there is not one critical period for language learning but rather that children and even adults experience several sensitive periods in which they are highly susceptible to language acquisition (Vanhove: 2013). This means that some people may learn languages better at an older age. However, the exact factors that determine susceptibility or sensitivity are still only little understood.
In the case of simultaneous bilingualism, children acquire two languages as their L1 because either their parents speak two different languages with them or because they speak one language at home and one outside of the home. Whatever the case, the same mechanisms that apply to monolingual L1 acquisition apply: input and output in both languages are the driving factors for children to become fluent in either language. According to our current understanding, as long as children receive rich and varied input in and plenty of opportunities to communicate in both languages, they should develop the same way one language would on its own.
As children across the world begin English language education at an increasingly early age, and as more and more children of immigrants enter schools, the borders between sequential and simultaneous language acquisition are blurred. If a child starts speaking an additional language from the age of two or even one, does she acquire it like an L1 or an L2? Linguists have identified many processes of language acquisition that seem to only take place before that age. Yet in elementary school, the children who start learning at the age of two are indistinguishable from those who acquire it from birth (Baker: 2001).
In this environment, parents, teachers, and policy makers might worry about the effects that a bilingual upbringing may have on their children. One common belief is that the two languages would interfere with each other and slow down or even limit their proper development. The assumption is that bilingually raised children would end up speaking both languages at a worse level than their monolingual peers. This concern is particularly true in the context of children of immigrants who are expected to master the common language to gain fair access to education while speaking their parents’ mother tongue at home.
Historically, bilingualism has often been associated with poor performance at school and worse job opportunities. However, research over the past 50 years has revealed that poor academic performance or a lack of job opportunities cannot be linked to bilingualism for two main reasons. One, bilingual speakers who speak prestigious languages such as English at home have shown no difference in academic achievement or career paths from their monolingual peers. Two, children of immigrants who speak a non-prestigious language at home (e.g., Spanish in the USA) don’t show a worse level of proficiency in the dominant language than their monolingual peers (Baker: 2001).
While the exact factors that influence the acquisition of L1’s and L2’s are still not fully understood, linguists have a rather good understanding of how bilingualism itself affects the success of L1 development. One of the main reasons why it is often thought that the two languages of bilingually raised children would interfere with each other’s development is that those children are often observed to switch rapidly back and forth between their languages. They even mix grammar and vocabulary in a way that produces sentences that would be incomprehensible to a monolingual speaker of either language. This phenomenon is referred to as code switching and is not only found in bilingual children but also in bilingual adults who acquired their L2 sequentially. It is not a symptom of imperfect language development but rather evidence of the mastery of both languages (Baker: 2001).
Furthermore, frequent code switching does not mean that bilingual children are unable to communicate in just one language appropriately with a monolingual conversation partner. Children as young as two years old have shown to be able to clearly distinguish between their two languages and know when it is appropriate to code switch or to stick to one language only. And as long as they receive rich and varied input and plenty of opportunities for output in both languages, they will be as fluent as their monolingual peers at any time (Baker: 2001).