現在お使いのブラウザはHTML5に対応していないため、JScriptを使用していくつかの要素がきちんと見えるように実現しました。 しかし、残念ながらあなたのブラウザではスクリプト機能がオフになっています。このページを正しく表示するためには、スクリプト機能をオンにしてください。
#Culture
Growing Up Bilingual Part 1
Common misconceptions about bilingualism in children
Updated: 2021.05.25
11 min read · Intermediate
Growing Up Bilingual Part 1

Over the past century, English has evolved into a de-facto [1] international common language for business, politics, and academia. With this development, bilingualism has become a critical subject for governments, parents, and people in general. Countries across the world consider early English language education as an important pillar of their education systems. Indeed, English is commonly being taught as early as grade 1 of elementary school or even in preschools and kindergartens. However, the influence of English as a global common language is not the only factor that fuels the debate around bilingualism. Greater international mobility has led to increased streams of migration across countries, and many children are born into societies where one or both of their parents’ native languages are not widely spoken outside of their home or local communities.

Within this new paradigm, the importance of early English language education is widely acknowledged, and speaking both English and one’s mother tongue is regarded to be prestigious [2]. At the same time, concerns about bilingualism, particularly in the context of immigration and children of immigrants, persist, often fueled by nationalist and xenophobic sentiments within societies.

What is bilingualism?

  • Bilingualism: Generally speaking, bilingualism describes the ability of a person to speak two languages. In the academic sense, we distinguish between two kinds of bilingualism based on how the languages are acquired: Sequential and simultaneous.
  • Sequential Bilingualism: This includes anyone who has grown up with only one mother tongue (their first language or L1) and who has learned a second language (L2) later in their life. It is referred to as “sequential bilingualism” because languages are acquired in sequence.
  • Simultaneous Bilingualisms: In popular discussion, bilingualism is often used to refer to people who have grown up speaking two first languages. For instance, the child of a Korean father and a French mother might grow up speaking both Korean and French as their L1. This kind of bilingualism is called “simultaneous bilingualism” because the two languages are acquired at the same time.

How do humans learn languages?

The reason why a distinction between simultaneous and sequential bilingualism is necessary in the first place is that the humans learn their L1 very differently from an L2. Have you ever wondered how you’ve learned your mother tongue perfectly as a baby without textbooks and grammar tables? That’s because the brains of infants and young children seem to have the capacity to acquire the language of their environment purely incidentally, that is, without deliberately learning it but by simply hearing (input) and using (output) it. This ability is thought to deteriorate with age which is why it is necessary to memorize vocabulary and grammar rules when you learn a language later. Hence, the processes of acquiring one’s L1 and L2 are rather different.

However, there is no clear cut-off point where humans suddenly completely lose their ability to acquire languages incidentally. It just becomes less efficient and more difficult with time. At the same time, the consensus in linguistics today is that in L2 acquisition, there is not one critical period for language learning but rather that children and even adults experience several sensitive periods in which they are highly susceptible to language acquisition (Vanhove: 2013). This means that some people may learn languages better at an older age. However, the exact factors that determine susceptibility or sensitivity are still only little understood.

In the case of simultaneous bilingualism, children acquire two languages as their L1 because either their parents speak two different languages with them or because they speak one language at home and one outside of the home. Whatever the case, the same mechanisms that apply to monolingual L1 acquisition apply: input and output in both languages are the driving factors for children to become fluent in either language. According to our current understanding, as long as children receive rich and varied input in and plenty of opportunities to communicate in both languages, they should develop the same way one language would on its own.

Negative misconceptions of bilingualism

As children across the world begin English language education at an increasingly early age, and as more and more children of immigrants enter schools, the borders between sequential and simultaneous language acquisition are blurred. If a child starts speaking an additional language from the age of two or even one, does she acquire it like an L1 or an L2? Linguists have identified many processes of language acquisition that seem to only take place before that age. Yet in elementary school, the children who start learning at the age of two are indistinguishable from those who acquire it from birth (Baker: 2001).

In this environment, parents, teachers, and policy makers might worry about the effects that a bilingual upbringing may have on their children. One common belief is that the two languages would interfere with each other and slow down or even limit their proper development. The assumption is that bilingually raised children would end up speaking both languages at a worse level than their monolingual peers. This concern is particularly true in the context of children of immigrants who are expected to master the common language to gain fair access to education while speaking their parents’ mother tongue at home.

Historically, bilingualism has often been associated with poor performance at school and worse job opportunities. However, research over the past 50 years has revealed that poor academic performance or a lack of job opportunities cannot be linked to bilingualism for two main reasons. One, bilingual speakers who speak prestigious languages such as English at home have shown no difference in academic achievement or career paths from their monolingual peers. Two, children of immigrants who speak a non-prestigious language at home (e.g., Spanish in the USA) don’t show a worse level of proficiency in the dominant language than their monolingual peers (Baker: 2001).

While the exact factors that influence the acquisition of L1’s and L2’s are still not fully understood, linguists have a rather good understanding of how bilingualism itself affects the success of L1 development. One of the main reasons why it is often thought that the two languages of bilingually raised children would interfere with each other’s development is that those children are often observed to switch rapidly back and forth between their languages. They even mix grammar and vocabulary in a way that produces sentences that would be incomprehensible to a monolingual speaker of either language. This phenomenon is referred to as code switching and is not only found in bilingual children but also in bilingual adults who acquired their L2 sequentially. It is not a symptom of imperfect language development but rather evidence of the mastery of both languages (Baker: 2001).

Furthermore, frequent code switching does not mean that bilingual children are unable to communicate in just one language appropriately with a monolingual conversation partner. Children as young as two years old have shown to be able to clearly distinguish between their two languages and know when it is appropriate to code switch or to stick to one language only. And as long as they receive rich and varied input and plenty of opportunities for output in both languages, they will be as fluent as their monolingual peers at any time (Baker: 2001).

바이링구얼에 대해 이해하기 (1)

지난 세기 동안 영어는 비즈니스, 정치, 학술 부문에서 사실상 국제 공용어로 발전해 왔습니다. 이러한 발전으로 인해 이중언어 구사는 정부들, 부모들, 그리고 일반 사람들에게 여러 고민과 토론 및 연구가 필요한 중요한 주제가 되었습니다. 세계 많은 나라들이 영어 교육을 국가 교육 시스템에 매우 중요한 부분으로 여깁니다. 실제로 영어는 보통 초등학교 1학년 때부터, 심지어 유치원 혹은 더 어릴 때부터 가르치기도 합니다. 하지만 영어가 세계 공용어라는 영향력만이 이중언어 구사를 둘러싼 논쟁에 불을 지피고 있는 것은 아닙니다. 국제 이동의 확대는 국가 간 이주의 물결을 증가시켰고, 많은 아이들이 부모 중 한 명 또는 두 명 다 그들의 모국어가 가정이나 그들이 속한 지역사회를 넘어서는 잘 사용되지 않는 사회에서 태어납니다.

이 새로운 패러다임 내에서 조기 영어 교육의 중요성은 널리 인식되고 있고, 영어와 모국어를 모두 구사할 수 있는 능력은 높게 평가됩니다. 동시에 이민과 이민자 자녀들이라는 문맥 하에 2개 국어 구사에 대한 우려는 여전히 존재하는데, 특히 민족주의적 또는 외국인 혐오정서가 이런 걱정을 더하게 합니다.

이중언어란 무엇입니까?

  • 이중언어: 일반적으로 이중언어는 한 사람이 두 개의 언어를 구사할 수 있는 능력을 말하는데, 학술적으로는 어떻게 언어를 습득했는가에 따라 두 가지 유형, 즉 순차적 또는 동시적 유형으로 구분합니다.
  • 순차적 이중언어: 순차적 이중언어는 한 개의 모국어(제1언어, L1)만 사용하며 자라다 이후 살면서 제2외국어(L2)를 학습한 사람들을 가리킵니다. 순차적으로 언어를 습득했기 때문에 ‘순차적 이중언어’라고 부릅니다.
  • 동시적 이중언어: 일반적으로 이중언어는 주로 두 개의 모국어(L1)를 구사하며 자란 사람들을 가리킵니다. 예를 들어, 한국인 아버지와 프랑스인 어머니 밑에서 성장한 자녀는 한국어와 프랑스어를 모두 L1으로 구사하게 됩니다. 두 언어를 동시에 습득했기 때문에, 이러한 유형을 ‘동시적 이중언어’라고 부릅니다.

사람들은 어떤 방식으로 언어를 습득할까요?

애초에 동시적 이중언어와 순차적 이중언어의 구분이 필요한 이유는 사람들이 L1(모국어)과 L2(제2외국어)를 매우 다르게 배우기 때문입니다. 여러분은 유아기에 교과서와 문법 표 없이 어떻게 모국어를 완벽하게 배웠는지 고민해 본 적이 있으신가요? 이것은 유아와 어린아이들의 뇌는 순전히 부수적으로, 즉 일부러 학습하지 않고 단순히 듣고(입력) 사용(출력)함으로써 그들이 속해 있는 환경의 언어를 습득하는 능력을 갖추고 있기 때문입니다. 이러한 능력은 나이가 들면서 쇠퇴하기 때문에 언어를 나중에 배울 시 어휘와 문법을 외워야 합니다. 따라서 L1과 L2를 습득하는 과정은 상당히 다릅니다.

하지만 사람들이 언어를 부수적으로 습득하는 능력을 갑자기 잃어버리게 되는 명백한 시점이 있는 것은 아닙니다. 단지 시간이 지날수록 효율성이 떨어지고 더 어려워 할 뿐입니다. 동시에 L2 습득에 있어서 현재 언어학에서 합의된 바, 언어를 학습하는데 주요 시기가 한 번만 있는 것이 아니라, 아이들뿐만 아니라 성인들도 언어 습득에 매우 효과적인 민감한 시기를 몇 번 경험하게 된다고 합니다(Vanhove: 2013). 이 말은 어떤 사람들은 나이가 더 들어서 언어를 더 잘 배울 수 있다는 것을 의미합니다. 그러나 언어를 배우는데 이러한 민감성과 예민함을 결정하는 정확한 요인에 대해 아직 알려진 바가 거의 없습니다.

동시적 이중언어의 경우, 부모가 자녀들과 함께 두 다른 언어를 구사하거나, 가정과 밖에서 사용하는 언어가 각각 다르기 때문에, 아이들은 두 언어를 그들의 L1(모국어)으로 습득하게 됩니다. 어떤 경우든 단일언어 모국어 습득에 적용되는 동일한 메커니즘이 적용되는 것으로 알려져 있습니다. 아이들이 어느 언어를 구사하던, 두 언어 모두 입력(듣기)과 출력(사용)이 그 언어를 유창하게 만드는 원동력이 된다는 것입니다. 현재까지 이해하고 있는 바에 의하면, 아이들이 두 언어를 자주 그리고 다양하게 듣고 소통할 충분한 기회를 얻으면, 두 언어를 습득하는 것이 하나의 언어를 습득하는 것과 차이가 없다고 합니다.

이중언어에 대한 부정적인 오해

전 세계 아이들이 점점 더 어린 나이부터 영어 교육을 시작하고, 점점 더 많은 이민자 자녀들이 학교에 입학하면서, 순차적 언어 습득과 동시적 언어 습득 사이의 경계가 모호해 지고 있습니다. 아이가 2살이나 심지어 1살 때부터 다른 언어로 말하기 시작한다면, 이 아이는 언어를 L1(모국어)처럼 습득한 것일까요, 아니면 L2(제2외국어)처럼 습득한 것일까요? 언어학자들은 2살 전에만 일어나는 것처럼 보이는 언어 습득의 많은 과정을 알아냈습니다. 초등학교 때에는, 2살 때부터 배우기 시작한 아이들과 태어날 때부터 습득한 아이들 간에 차이가 나지 않았습니다(Baker: 2001).

이러한 환경에서 부모들과 교사 그리고 정책 입안자들은 이중언어 양육이 자녀들에게 미칠 영향에 대해 걱정할 수 있습니다. 일반적으로 사람들은 두 언어가 서로 방해하여 적절한 언어 발달의 속도를 늦추거나 심지어 제한할 것이라고 믿습니다. 이는 두 언어를 사용하며 자란 아이들은 결국 단일언어를 사용하는 또래보다 두 언어 모두 구사 수준이 부족할 것이라는 가정입니다. 이러한 우려는 특히 이민자 자녀들의 경우 사실로 드러나는데, 이들은 정기 교육을 받기 위해 사회 공용어를 구사하도록 요구받는 동시에 집에서는 부모의 모국어를 사용해야 하기 때문입니다.

역사적으로 이중언어는 종종 낮은 학교 성적과 취업 기회 감소와 연관지어지곤 했습니다. 그러나 지난 50년간 진행된 연구는 두 가지 핵심 이유로 이중언어가 낮은 학업 성적이나 취업 기회 감소와 연관성이 낮다 밝혀냈습니다. 첫째, 영어 같이 고급 언어로 평가되는 언어를 가정에서 구사하는 2개 국어 능력자는 학업 성취나 진로에서 1개 국어만 사용하는 또래들과 그 어떤 차이도 보이지 않았습니다. 둘째, 가정에서 사회 공용 언어를 사용하지 않는 이민자 자녀들(예. 미국에서 스페인어 사용)은 이 지배 언어를 능숙하게 구사하는 데 있어 단일언어를 사용하는 또래들과 비슷한 수준을 보였습니다(Baker: 2001).

L1(제1언어)과 L2(제2외국어)를 습득하는 데 있어서 영향을 미치는 정확한 요인들이 아직 완전히 파악되진 않았지만, 언어학자들은 이중언어 사용 자체가 성공적인 L1 발달에 어떤 영향을 주는지 잘 이해하고 있습니다. 이중언어 아동의 두 언어가 서로의 발달을 방해할 거라고 흔히 생각하는 주된 이유 중 하나는, 이 아이들이 두 언어를 빠르게 왔다 갔다 하며 사용하는 것이 자주 관찰되었기 때문입니다. 이 아이들은 또 두 언어의 문법과 어휘를 뒤섞어 사용하면서 단일언어를 구사하는 사람들이 알아들을 수 없는 문장을 만들기도 합니다. 이러한 현상을 코드 전환(code switching)이라고 부르는데, 이 현상은 아이들뿐만 아니라 순차적으로 L2를 습득한 성인들에게도 발견됩니다. 이것은 불완전한 언어 발달의 증상이 아니라 오히려 두 언어에 숙달했다는 증거입니다(Baker: 2001).

더해서, 코드 전환을 자주 하는 것이 이중언어 아동이 단일언어 대화 상대와 하나의 언어로 적절하게 소통할 수 없다는 것을 의미하지 않습니다. 2살 정도의 아동은 구사하는 두 언어를 명확하게 구별할 수 있었고, 한 언어를 계속 사용해야 할 때와 코드 전환의 적절한 시기를 알고 있다는 것을 보여줍니다. 아이들이 두 언어를 풍부하고 다양하게 듣고 사용할 기회를 충분히 얻게 된다면 언제라도 단일언어를 사용하는 또래만큼 유창하게 해당 언어를 구사할 수 있습니다(Baker: 2001).

Discussion Questions
Q1
In your own words, please briefly summarize the article.
Q2
Are you bilingual or multilingual? When did you acquire your second or third language, and what was the experience like?
Q3
Do you have a young family member that is bilingual/multilingual? What was the language-acquisition journey like for them, and can you sympathize with their experiences?
Q4
Have you noticed any negative assumptions that come with being a bilingual or multilingual? Do you think any of those assumptions have a kernel of truth in them?
Q5
Are you satisfied with where you are in terms of your foreign language proficiency, whatever language that might be? If not, do you wish you had acquired multiple languages simultaneously growing up?
Q6
Do you ever feel the need to code-switch? If you do engage in code-switching, do you end up mixing grammar and vocabulary in a way that produces broken sentences? What is your take on such a habit?
Q7
The article says that “the borders between sequential and simultaneous language acquisition become harder to define clearly”. What does this personally mean to you and why might this be the case?
Q8
Given the negative misconceptions about bilingualism, when should children start learning a second language?
Q9
If you have a question or questions that you'd like to discuss during your class, please write them down.
Expressions
de-facto
existing or holding a specified position in fact but not necessarily by legal right.
例文
1

English has become a de-facto common language of the world even though there are no international laws that state that it is.

例文
2

I’m not the CEO but I worked so hard that I am the de facto leader of the company.

prestigious
inspiring respect and admiration; having high status
例文
1

Travelling in first class is truly prestigious.

例文
2

President is one of the most prestigious political offices in the country.

본 교재는 당사 편집진이 제작하는 링글의 자산으로 저작권법에 의해 보호됩니다. 링글 플랫폼 외에서 자료를 활용하시는 경우 당사와 사전 협의가 필요합니다.

Over the past century, English has evolved into a de-facto [1] international common language for business, politics, and academia. With this development, bilingualism has become a critical subject for governments, parents, and people in general. Countries across the world consider early English language education as an important pillar of their education systems. Indeed, English is commonly being taught as early as grade 1 of elementary school or even in preschools and kindergartens. However, the influence of English as a global common language is not the only factor that fuels the debate around bilingualism. Greater international mobility has led to increased streams of migration across countries, and many children are born into societies where one or both of their parents’ native languages are not widely spoken outside of their home or local communities.

Within this new paradigm, the importance of early English language education is widely acknowledged, and speaking both English and one’s mother tongue is regarded to be prestigious [2]. At the same time, concerns about bilingualism, particularly in the context of immigration and children of immigrants, persist, often fueled by nationalist and xenophobic sentiments within societies.

What is bilingualism?

  • Bilingualism: Generally speaking, bilingualism describes the ability of a person to speak two languages. In the academic sense, we distinguish between two kinds of bilingualism based on how the languages are acquired: Sequential and simultaneous.
  • Sequential Bilingualism: This includes anyone who has grown up with only one mother tongue (their first language or L1) and who has learned a second language (L2) later in their life. It is referred to as “sequential bilingualism” because languages are acquired in sequence.
  • Simultaneous Bilingualisms: In popular discussion, bilingualism is often used to refer to people who have grown up speaking two first languages. For instance, the child of a Korean father and a French mother might grow up speaking both Korean and French as their L1. This kind of bilingualism is called “simultaneous bilingualism” because the two languages are acquired at the same time.

How do humans learn languages?

The reason why a distinction between simultaneous and sequential bilingualism is necessary in the first place is that the humans learn their L1 very differently from an L2. Have you ever wondered how you’ve learned your mother tongue perfectly as a baby without textbooks and grammar tables? That’s because the brains of infants and young children seem to have the capacity to acquire the language of their environment purely incidentally, that is, without deliberately learning it but by simply hearing (input) and using (output) it. This ability is thought to deteriorate with age which is why it is necessary to memorize vocabulary and grammar rules when you learn a language later. Hence, the processes of acquiring one’s L1 and L2 are rather different.

However, there is no clear cut-off point where humans suddenly completely lose their ability to acquire languages incidentally. It just becomes less efficient and more difficult with time. At the same time, the consensus in linguistics today is that in L2 acquisition, there is not one critical period for language learning but rather that children and even adults experience several sensitive periods in which they are highly susceptible to language acquisition (Vanhove: 2013). This means that some people may learn languages better at an older age. However, the exact factors that determine susceptibility or sensitivity are still only little understood.

In the case of simultaneous bilingualism, children acquire two languages as their L1 because either their parents speak two different languages with them or because they speak one language at home and one outside of the home. Whatever the case, the same mechanisms that apply to monolingual L1 acquisition apply: input and output in both languages are the driving factors for children to become fluent in either language. According to our current understanding, as long as children receive rich and varied input in and plenty of opportunities to communicate in both languages, they should develop the same way one language would on its own.

Negative misconceptions of bilingualism

As children across the world begin English language education at an increasingly early age, and as more and more children of immigrants enter schools, the borders between sequential and simultaneous language acquisition are blurred. If a child starts speaking an additional language from the age of two or even one, does she acquire it like an L1 or an L2? Linguists have identified many processes of language acquisition that seem to only take place before that age. Yet in elementary school, the children who start learning at the age of two are indistinguishable from those who acquire it from birth (Baker: 2001).

In this environment, parents, teachers, and policy makers might worry about the effects that a bilingual upbringing may have on their children. One common belief is that the two languages would interfere with each other and slow down or even limit their proper development. The assumption is that bilingually raised children would end up speaking both languages at a worse level than their monolingual peers. This concern is particularly true in the context of children of immigrants who are expected to master the common language to gain fair access to education while speaking their parents’ mother tongue at home.

Historically, bilingualism has often been associated with poor performance at school and worse job opportunities. However, research over the past 50 years has revealed that poor academic performance or a lack of job opportunities cannot be linked to bilingualism for two main reasons. One, bilingual speakers who speak prestigious languages such as English at home have shown no difference in academic achievement or career paths from their monolingual peers. Two, children of immigrants who speak a non-prestigious language at home (e.g., Spanish in the USA) don’t show a worse level of proficiency in the dominant language than their monolingual peers (Baker: 2001).

While the exact factors that influence the acquisition of L1’s and L2’s are still not fully understood, linguists have a rather good understanding of how bilingualism itself affects the success of L1 development. One of the main reasons why it is often thought that the two languages of bilingually raised children would interfere with each other’s development is that those children are often observed to switch rapidly back and forth between their languages. They even mix grammar and vocabulary in a way that produces sentences that would be incomprehensible to a monolingual speaker of either language. This phenomenon is referred to as code switching and is not only found in bilingual children but also in bilingual adults who acquired their L2 sequentially. It is not a symptom of imperfect language development but rather evidence of the mastery of both languages (Baker: 2001).

Furthermore, frequent code switching does not mean that bilingual children are unable to communicate in just one language appropriately with a monolingual conversation partner. Children as young as two years old have shown to be able to clearly distinguish between their two languages and know when it is appropriate to code switch or to stick to one language only. And as long as they receive rich and varied input and plenty of opportunities for output in both languages, they will be as fluent as their monolingual peers at any time (Baker: 2001).

*本教材は、Ringleを使用して英語を学ぶ学習者向けに設計されています。